Ever heard of operant conditioning?

Occasionally when talking to us dog trainer types you will hear us using what may seem to

be some baffling terms... the following are some of the most common and are all to do with how dogs and most species, including humans, learn.

Operant conditioning

Classical conditioning

Un/Conditioned stimuli

Un/Conditioned response

Positive reinforcement 

Negative reinforcement

Positive punishment

Negative punishment

But what do all these terms mean, a good trainer will take the time to explain these terms to you but in case you find yourself confused by doggy mumbo jumbo then here is a brief introduction to the mysteries of learning theory.

Modern dog training methods are founded on a concept called conditioning. There are two types of conditioning, classical and operant – both of which dogs respond to.

Simply put, classical conditioning is responsible for involuntary responses, e.g. a dog salivating when food is served, while operant conditioning is responsible for voluntary responses, e.g. a dog sitting for a treat.

Classical conditioning was pioneered in the late 19^th century by Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov showed that when dogs smelled food saliva was released in anticipation. He called the food an unconditioned stimulus and the salivating the unconditioned response. Unconditioned because the dogs were responding automatically to the stimulus - they had not been trained to do so. Pavlov was an inquisitive kind of chap and soon discovered that if he rang a bell on a regular basis before feeding the dogs the dogs soon started to salivate at the sound of the bell. The bell had become a conditioned stimulus and the dogs’ salivating a conditioned response. Prior to linking the bell ringing to the food the dogs did not salivate when a bell rang - that is to say that the bell did not naturally produce salivation, the dogs had to be conditioned in order to salivate upon hearing the bell ring.

Pavlov went on to show that it was possible to build an association between an unconditioned and a conditioned stimulus so that either would elicit the same involuntary response. He called this association between the stimuli classical conditioning.

At around the same time that Pavlov was working on the theory of classical conditioning two Americans, Edward Lee Thorndyke and B.F. Skinner, were working on operant conditioning. Where classical conditioning forms an association between two stimuli to elicit a response, operant conditioning forms an association between a behaviour and a consequence. (You might also come across operant conditioning referred to as response-stimulus or RS conditioning because we are forming an association between the animal's response [behaviour] and the stimulus that follows [consequence])

Typically classical conditioning is used to change a dog’s emotional state. It can help the dog to feel positive about potentially negative situations or objects, such as nail clippers or a visit to the vet.

Operant conditioning is the science that lies behind the positive, reward based methods of training most modern dog trainers prefer. At its most basic operant conditioning is the modification of behaviour through the use of consequences (reinforcers and punishers). Operant conditioning differs from classical conditioning in that it deals with changing operant or 'voluntary' behaviour as opposed to reflexive 'involuntary' behaviour. That being said, whenever you're dealing with changing behaviours, operant and classical conditioning can work hand-in-hand. 

Operant conditioning has two main tools for modifying behaviour - reinforcement and punishment. Reinforcers increase behaviour, while punishers decrease a behaviour. These operate in two contexts - positive and negative. In this case, positive refers to addition; negative refers to subtraction.

What is a reinforcer?

A reinforcer is a rewarding stimulus that will increase the desired behaviour. A reinforcer can be food or it can be a variety of other things including toys, freedom to roam, walks, play, affection and much more.

Different stimuli will have different results depending on a variety of factors such as the dog, the trainer, the environment, the trigger event, how the stimulus is applied.

How and what a dog learns is also highly dependent on timing (when a stimulus is applied), and frequency (how often a stimulus is applied). Generally, we want to apply the reward as close to the target behaviour as possible.

There are three main components of operant conditioning:

Reinforcement 

Something that makes the behavior occur again.

·      Reinforcement can be either positive or negative.

·      Positive reinforcement adds something, such as food, to increase the occurrence of a behaviour.

·      Negative reinforcement removes something to increase the behaviour.

Punishment 

Something that causes a behavior to become less frequent.

·      Punishment can also be positive or negative.

·      Positive punishment is adding something to decrease the occurrence of a behaviour - this is how shock or spray collars and other aversives work.

·      Negative punishment is removing something to decrease the occurrence of a behaviour. So you stop walking with a dog when it pulls, the fun ends and the pulling stops.

Extinction - No consequence to behavior at which point the behavior becomes less frequent.

Doggy body language - how to tell when your dog is uncomfortable

You might think that the only way your dog communicates with the world is through barking, but you'd be wrong. All day long your dog is busy expressing how he feels in a variety of subtle, and sometimes not so subtle, ways. Trouble is most of us humans haven't bothered to learn to speak doggy language...so here is part one in a crash course on understanding your dog's body language.

All of the signs outlined in this post are your dog's way of indicating that he is uncomfortable with the situation he finds himself in. Sometimes you might hear them called 'appeasement gestures' or 'calming signals' - what you call them isn't really important, the fact that you are able to notice them and respond to them accordingly is. As a responsible dog owner you should therefore intervene in order to prevent pushing the dog to the point of aggressing.

A growling dog is a bad/aggressive dog. Isn't it?

A key point to remember is never to punish your dog for showing these signs. We WANT our dogs to show us when they are anxious or uncomfortable. You should therefore NEVER punish a dog for showing that he wants to be left alone by growling, leaving the situation or demonstrating more subtle signs. 

But why? Isn't my dog showing aggression by growling? Shouldn't I tell him off and show him who's boss?

When your dog growls he is communicating very clearly that he is unhappy. Chances are he has been trying to tell you this for a while but lumbering oafs that us humans are you have missed the subtler signals. He is now trying to make it explicit that he wants whatever is going on to stop. Most dogs have several stages of showing their discomfort with a situation before they resort to biting. If you punish a dog for showing this discomfort, be it a growl, looking away, moving away etc you are effectively removing one of these steps from your dog's repertoire. You are therefore reducing the likelihood that your dog will show warning behaviour before going in all guns blazing. The dogs who 'bite out of the blue' are rare, those that truly do have usually been punished for showing warning signs - result = they don't warn they just do. 

The dog who is punished for growling at a child, moving away from a person he is unsure of, not maintaining eye contact still FEELS EXACTLY THE SAME about the situation, but now he has no way to show it and no way out of the situation. Be glad if your dog gives a warning and take steps to modify the situation your dog is reacting to (child approaching/dog approaching/the vet etc), work instead on conditioning your dog to view these events/situations as positive and create safe spaces so your dog can 'escape' if he needs to. 

ONE PAW RAISED

This may look like a cute trick but all too often this is a signal that the dog is not happy. This is a calming signal and is the dog signalling that they are more interested in 'flight' than 'fight.' This is not a time to force your dog to meet other people/dogs. Watch their behaviour, make a note of the situation this occurs in and take steps to address.





A raised paw can mean a variety of different things in doggy language it is therefore important to look at the rest of the dog's body and the context the paw lift is shown in, in order to evaluate the situation.

Just as an indication of the myriad different signals a dog lifting a paw might be giving in Brenda Aloff's book - Canine Body language - paw lifts are classified as:


1. Paw lift w/smile, relaxed mouth = happy dog and in "submissive*" state of mind 
2. Paw lift w/ backwards orientation, rounded back, tucked tail & braced legs = anxious dog doing avoidance behaviour
3. Paw lift w/extreme rounded topline (back), flat ears, lowered head, drawn lips and tucked tail = fearful dog "STOP approaching me"
4. Paw lift w/alert yet relaxed body posture = dog filled with good anticipation
5. Paw lift w/alert, relaxed body and ears erect = curious dog
6. Paw lift w/dog on dog greeting - side by side bodies, half mast ears, relaxed bodies = polite greeting "Hello There"
7. Paw lift w/human greeting, squatting/sitting, ears back, soft eyes, lowered tail = polite human greeting "I'm friendly and respectful" (BA's quote)

You can also see paw lifts when a dog is stalking (prey), targeting, warning, neogtiating a pass by, playing, pointing...the list is endless. Try and get to know what different paw lifts look like and when your dog does them.

(* Here at 4Paws/LDG we prefer to use the term appeasing/non aggressing to submissive and assertive instead of dominant.)

IT'S ALL IN THE EYES
Eyes may be the gateway to the soul but with dogs they are also a great indicator of how he is feeling. Here are some to keep an eye out for...


Half moon/whale eye
Whale eye/half moon eye is what us training types call it when a dog's white of the eye is clearly visible with the eye either goggling or rolled slightly to one side, sometimes with the head averted. This is another sign the dog is uncomfortable and needs some space. This is a very common expression in dogs that are being hugged. If you see the half moon eye when the kids approach the dog or are interacting with the dog, it's time to intervene and give them all something else to do.

This dog is showing a 'half moon eye'

Here is a good example of 'whale eye'









Lip licking
This is one of the most common calming/anxiety signals dogs show. Like so many doggy behaviours what it means varies depending on the context. 

Lip licking can be just a quick tongue flick, but sometimes it can be a more obvious repetitive lapping, both are often accompanied by a turned head. This behaviour usually indicates nervousness and appeasement. The dog is trying to diffuse the situation he finds himself in. 

You may also see a form of lip licking when dogs greet one another, depending on the situation - whether your dog is meeting a friend or another dog for the first time this behaviour can either be an appeasing gesture - 'I'm no threat' - in which case it is often accompanied by rolling onto their back, or a sign of affiliation - sort of like them saying 'hey buddy, we're good right?'. Why not see how many times your dog lip licks and in what context each day?

Yawning and lip-licking, are a type of behaviour commonly categorised as displacement behaviours/appeasement gestures/calming signals. These behaviours are typically 'normal' behaviours displayed in an unexpected context. Usually they indicate conflict and anxiety and are part of a dog's attempt to deflect a perceived threat. The dog wants to do something, but he is suppressing the urge to do it. Instead he replaces the suppressed behaviour with something else such as a lick or a yawn. 

Some examples of such behaviours include:

• Yawning when not tired
• Licking chops without the presence of food 
• Scratching when not itchy
• Biting at paws or other part of his own body
• Sudden sniffing of the ground or other object
• Shake off when not wet or dirty

These are all things that dogs do anyway. The key is to look at the context and see if your dog is offering these behaviours when he might not otherwise be expected to do so.

For example: if it is bedtime and the dog gets up, stretches, yawns and goes to bed, then that yawn was not a displacement behaviour. Compare this with the situation where a child comes over and starts hugging the dog or lying on him and he yawns.

The importance of noting displacement behaviour is that they show you when to intervene. The dog in the above scenario is most likely uncomfortable with the attention he is getting from the children. He wants to get up and walk away, he may even want to bite, but he displaces that with other behaviours such as yawning or licking either the children or himself. In this context you should either prevent whatever was causing the dog to show displacement behaviours from occurring in the future or use positive training techniques to teach the dog to enjoy (not just tolerate) these situations. 


Avoidance behaviours
Some dogs deal with anxiety by attempting to remove themselves from the situation. Never force a dog to stay in a situation in which he feels anxious, especially if children are involved. Here are some examples of avoidance behaviours:

• Getting up and leaving an uncomfortable situation
• Turning head away
• Hiding behind person or object
• Barking and then retreating
• Rolling over to expose his belly

Other body language signs that your dog may be anxious...

His tail is..

between his legs

low and only the end is wagging

between legs and wagging

tail down or straight for curly-tailed dog (eg spitz-type dogs)


His ears are...

sideways (for erect eared dogs)

back and this is accompanied by rapid panting








The dog urinates or defecates - the dog is so anxious they pee/poop themselves in fear. This is usually a signal of extreme stress.

All dogs should have a safe place in the house - such as a crate or mat that they can go to when they want to be left alone. All family members and guests should be taught to respect the dog's space and not to bother the dog when he goes to his safe place. 


More sites to look at:

Dog body language photos and explanations
The eyes have it - what dogs' eyes can tell you about how they are feeling

Dogs don't like hugs and kisses

This is a great post from doggone safe...

Dogs Don't like Hugs and Kisses

Dogs Don't Like Hugs and Kisses!

This is one of Doggone Safe's major messages and probably the one that gives us the most trouble. Many people simply don't believe this and are determined to argue about it.

Some dogs are very tolerant and will allow hugging and kissing, some try to get away, some lick the face of the hugger until they let go and some resort to biting. Some rare dogs do enjoy hugs from a person that they love, who scratches their chest while hugging and who doles out hugs on the dog's terms. There are few if any dogs who enjoy hugs the way kids do it, which is to clasp the dog around the neck and hang on. This is very threatening to a dog. The fact that the dog is uncomfortable or even feeling a threat and the proximity of the child's face to the dog's teeth makes this potentially very dangerous. This is why we recommend that parents teach children to show affection to the dog in ways that do not involve hugs and kisses.

In a study that looked at the reasons for dog bites to children the following was found:

Familiar children were most commonly bitten in relation to food or resource guarding and “benign” interactions such as petting, hugging, bending over, or speaking to the dog.

Read the whole study report. This is something that dog trainers and behaviorists know without having to see any data. From their experience they know that this is a major cause of facial bites and they know from the behavior of dogs that they rarely enjoy hugs and kisses. Author and dog behavior expert Patricia McConnell says in her wonderful book "For the Love of a Dog" that she has at least 50 photos of kids hugging dogs and in not one of them does the dog look happy.

A recently published children's book entitled "Smooch Your Pooch" recommends that kids hug and kiss their dog anytime anywhere. We regard this as dangerous advice and so does the American Veterinary Society of Animal Behavior and Veterinary Behaviorist Sophia Yin. Dr Yin says:

While this adorably illustrated book, with its sweet, catchy rhymes, is meant to foster affection for pets, the contents as well as the cover illustration teach kids to hug and kiss dogs; this can cause dogs to react aggressively. No one knows that better than Dr. Ilana Reisner, a veterinary behaviorist at the University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine. Dr. Reisner and her colleagues published a study examining why children get bitten by dogs. Says Reisner, "The recommendations in this children's book -- and even the title of the book -- are potentially dangerous."

That's because many dogs do not like being petted or hugged. They just tolerate it -- at least temporarily.

Read Dr. Yin's article about Smooch Your Pooch and why it is not good idea to encourage kids to hug and kiss dogs.

If you are a person who thinks that your likes hugs and kisses, you can find out for sure by learning about dog body language and observing your dog to see how he reacts to hugs.Visit our website to learn about the signs of an anxious dog and see if your dog exhibits any of these while you are hugging him.

Even if you have one of those rare dogs that does enjoy hugs from your or from kids (very unlikely), there are times when the dog will be less tolerant than at other times. The dog may tolerate or even enjoy a hug on his terms, but sometimes he will not be in the mood. Here is how we explain this to kids:

When you are home at night watching TV or reading a bedtime story you might like to sit on your Mom or Dad's knee or have them whisper "I love you" in your ear or give you a kiss. However if you are out on the soccer field or at school with your friends or acting in the school play you might not want to sit on a parent's lap or have them run out in the middle of the game or the play to whisper in your ear or give you a hug and a kiss. It's the same for dogs. If they are busy doing something, or interested in another dog or a squirrel, or they are tired they may not want to have attention from you that they might enjoy at other times.

The dog that is most tolerant is the dog that is most likely to be subjected repeatedly to unwanted attentions. Dog and child relationship expert Madeline Gabriel calls this "the curse of the good dog". Click here to read more about this important concept and how you can protect your good dog from this curse.